电大本科西方经济学业1参考答案小抄参考.doc

专业好文档答:完全竞争是指竞争不受任何阻碍和干扰的市场结构。 这种市场结构形成的条件主要有： 一是市场上有无数个购买者和生产者，每个人和每个厂商所面对的都是一个既定的市场价格，都是市场价格的接受者； 二是市场上的产品都是无差异的，任何一个厂商都不能通过生产有差别性的产品来控制市场价格； 三是厂商和生产要素可以自由流动，使资源能得到充分利用；四是购买者和生产者对市场信息完全了解，可以确定最佳购买量和销售量，以一个确定的价格来出售产品，不致于造成多个价格并存现象。   完全竞争市场中，单个厂商面对的是一条具有完全弹性的水平的需求曲线d ，并且厂商的平均收益曲线AR、边际收益曲线MR和需求曲线d 是重叠的，即PARMRd，都是水平形的。   完全竞争市场上，厂商短期均衡条件是边际收益等于短期边际成本，即MRSMC；厂商达到短期均衡时的盈亏状况取决于均衡时价格P与短期平均成本曲线SAC之间的关系：若PSAC则可获超额利润，若PSAC则亏损，若PSAC则有正常利润；亏损状态下，厂商继续生产的条件是：价格大于或等于短期平均可变成本，即PSAVC  。完全竞争条件下，厂商短期供给曲线就是其边际成本曲线，是一条向右上方倾斜的曲线，即短期边际成本曲线SMC上大于或等于平均可变成本曲线最低点以上的部分。 当一个行业中的所有厂商的供给量之和等于市场的需求量时，这一行业便达到短期均衡。完全竞争行业中，行业需求曲线即为市场需求曲线，是一条向右下方倾斜的曲线；行业供给曲线是行业中所有厂商短期供给曲线之和，是一条向右上方倾斜的曲线。 完全竞争行业长期均衡有一个调整过程，至短期均衡的超额利润或亏损为零，才实现长期均衡，故长期均衡条件是：MRLMCLACSMCSAC。完全竞争厂商的长期供给曲线是大于长期平均成本曲线LAC最低点的那一段长期边际成本曲线LMC，是一条向右上方倾斜的曲线。 完全竞争行业的长期供给曲线不是将行业内各厂商的长期供给曲线简单相加，而是根据厂商进入或退出某一行业时，行业产量变化对生产要素价格所可能产生的影响，分三种情况：成本不变行业的长期供给曲线是一条水平曲线，表明行业可根据市场需求变化而调整其产量供给，但市场价格保持在原来LAC曲线最低点水平；成本递增行业的长期供给曲线是斜率为正的曲线，表明行业根据市场供求调整其产量水平时，市场价格会随之同方向变动；成本递减行业的长期供给曲线是一条斜率为负的曲线，表明行业根据市场供求调整其产量时，市场价格会随之成反方向变动。   完全垄断是指整个行业中只有一个生产者的市场结构。 这种市场结构形成的主要条件： 一是厂商即行业，整个行业中只有一个厂商提供全行业所需要的全部产品； 二是厂商所生产的产品没有任何替代品，不受任何竞争者的威胁； 三是其他厂商几乎不可能进入该行业。在这些条件下，市场中完全没有竞争的因素存在，厂商可以控制和操纵价格。这与完全竞争的含义和形成条件是不同的。   完全垄断厂商所面临的需求曲线就是整个市场的需求曲线，是一条向右下方倾斜的曲线。厂商的平均收益曲线AR与其面临的需求曲线D重叠，即PARD；边际收益曲线MR在平均收益曲线AR的下方，即MRAR。平均收益曲线AR和需求曲线D（d）重叠，完全垄断与完全竞争是相同的。所不同的是需求曲线D（d）的形状，完全垄断是向右下方倾斜线，完全竞争是水平线。边际收益曲线MR和平均收益曲线AR的关系也不同，完全垄断MRAR，完全竞争MRAR。   完全垄断市场上，厂商短期均衡条件为边际收益等于短期边际成本，即MRSMC，这与完全竞争短期均衡条件相同。在实现均衡时，厂商大多数情况下能获得超额利润，但也可能遭受亏损或不盈不亏，这取决于平均收益曲线AR与平均变动成本曲线SAVD的关系，如ARSAVC，则厂商有超额利润或不盈不亏，如ARSAVC，则有亏损。这与完全竞争厂商实现均衡后的状况比较是不同的，完全竞争是用价格P和平均成本SAC来比较判断的。 完全垄断条件下，由于厂商即行业，它提供了整个行业所需要的全部产品，厂商可以控制和操纵市场价格，所以不存在有规律性的供给曲线，也无行业需求曲线和行业供给曲线，这些与完全竞争条件下是不相同的。   完全垄断行业的长期均衡是以拥有超额利润为特征的，这与完全竞争行业以超额利润或亏损为零是不同的。完全垄断厂商长期均衡的条件是：MRLMCSMC，这与完全竞争厂商长期均衡条件相比，没有MRLACSAC。   与完全竞争相比，完全垄断也不存在有规律性的长期供给曲线，这是完全垄断形成的条件所决定的。 Winger Tuivasa-Sheck, who scored two tries in the Kiwis' 20-18 semi-final win over England, has been passed fit after a lower-leg injury, while Slater has been named at full-back but is still recovering from a knee injury aggravated against USA.Both sides boast 100% records heading into the encounter but Australia have not conceded a try since Josh Charnley's effort in their first pool match against England on the opening day.Aussie winger Jarryd Hayne is the competition's top try scorer with nine, closely followed by Tuivasa-Sheck with eight.But it is recently named Rugby League International Federation player of the year Sonny Bill Williams who has attracted the most interest in the tournament so far.The Kiwi - with a tournament high 17 offloads - has the chance of becoming the first player to win the World Cup in both rugby league and rugby union after triumphing with the All Blacks in 2011."I'd give every award back in a heartbeat just to get across the line this weekend," said Williams.The (lack of) air up there Watch mCayman Islands-based Webb, the head of Fifa's anti-racism taskforce, is in London for the Football Association's 150th anniversary celebrations and will attend City's Premier League match at Chelsea on Sunday."I am going to be at the match tomorrow and I have asked to meet Yaya Toure," he told BBC Sport."For me it's about how he felt and I would like to speak to him first to find out what his experience was."Uefa has opened disciplinary proceedings against CSKA for the "racist behaviour of their fans" during City's 2-1 win.Michel Platini, president of European football's governing body, has also ordered an immediate investigation into the referee's actions.CSKA said they were "surprised and disappointed" by Toure's complaint. In a statement the Russian side added: "We found no racist insults from fans of CSKA." Baumgartner the disappointing news: Mission aborted.The supersonic descent could happen as early as Sunda.The weather plays an important role in this mission. Starting at the ground, conditions have to be very calm - winds less than 2 mph, with no precipitation or humidity and limited cloud cover. The balloon, with capsule attached, will move through the lower level of the atmosphere (the troposphere) where our day-to-day weather lives. It will climb higher than the tip of Mount Everest (5.5 miles/8.85 kilometers), drifting even higher than the cruising altitude of commercial airliners (5.6 miles/9.17 kilometers) and into the stratosphere. As he crosses the boundary layer (called the tropopause),e can expect a lot of turbulence.The balloon will slowly drift to the edge of space at 120,000 feet ( Then, I would assume, he will slowly step out onto something resembling an Olympic diving platform.They blew it in 2008 when they got caught cold in the final and they will not make the same mistake against the Kiwis in Manchester.Five years ago they cruised through to the final and so far history has repeated itself here - the last try they conceded was scored by England's Josh Charnley in the opening game of the tournament.That could be classed as a weakness, a team under-cooked - but I have been impressed by the Kangaroos' focus in their games since then.They have been concentrating on the sort of stuff that wins you tough, even contests - strong defence, especially on their own goal-line, completing sets and a good kick-chase. They've been great at all the unglamorous stuff that often goes unnoticed in the stands but not by your team-mates.It is as though their entire tournament has been preparation for the final.In Johnathan Thurston, Cooper Cronk, Cameron Smith and either Billy Slater or Greg Inglis at full-back they have a spine that is unmatched in rugby league. They have played in so many high-pressure games - a priceless asset going into Saturday.The Kiwis are a lot less experienced but winning a dramatic match like their semi-final against England will do wonders for their confidence.They defeated Australia in the Four Nations final in 2010 and the last World Cup, and know they can rise to the big occasion.