从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用.docx

从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用AbstractTheword“euphemism”comesfromtheGreek,裰eu-means“go厘od”,andpheme-,“speech”o璜r“saying”,an千dtogetheritmeansliterall赔y“tospeakwit僬hgoodwordsor骂inapleasantm哿anner”.Euphe谚mism,asacult烦uralphenomen嵫onaswellasalinguisticcon喈cept,hasattractedpeople盯sattentionfo茹ralongtime.Ithaslongbeen禹atopicofmuch几interest.Generallyspeaki尿ng,peoplewou溆ldusemoreeup藓hemismsincommunicatingwi屎ththeopposit缡esex;womenwo骶uldusemoreth轩anmenwould;o剡lderpeoplewo栳uldusemoreth酽anyoungergenerations.Peo浑plewouldmoreuseeuphemism蔼sin"power"re澜lationsthani镐ncloserelations.Peoplewithhighereduc胼ationwouldus鲴emoreeuphemi叮sms.Theabove契factors:age,sex,socialstatus,educati椿on,etc.donot炙workseparately.Incommuni迮cating,theya蟾reinterlaced阝witheachothe轷randguideour脱choiceofeuphemisms.Whethertouseeuphe稂mismsortaboo荃wordsalsodep祟ends,toalarg舣eextent,onth过eattitudesof棼participants酢(particularl瘦yspeakers)an芾dthepurposeo蠲fconversatio贮ns.Thearticleconsistsof轩sixparts.Par憬toneexplains靼whatthemeani嘻ngofeuphemis扌mis.Parttwoi松ssayingtheCo昧operativePri跌ncipleinbriefly.Cooperat谖ivePrinciple蓼,thecornerst馍onetheoryofp杈ragmatics,is泌oneofthemain冫principlesth各atguidepeopl痊escommunica闾tion.TheCooperativePrinc女ipleanditsma捱ximscanexpla箔inwhatthelit芯eralmeaningisanditsreali淼ntentioninco境mmunicationa络ndensurethatinanexchange犷ofconversati篑on.Partthree跞presents,the悦formationeup儡hemism,namely,formalinno骜vation,seman檄ticinnovatio栎n,rhetoricaldevices,andg男rammaticalwa订ys.Partfourd策iscussesthec撇ommunicative儿functionofeu镁phemismissub闸stitution,po绁liteness,disguise,defens珐e,etc.Partfi碚veservesasth钏emainbodyoft首hisarticle.G胱enerallyspea宾king,euphemi肿smsviolateth翮eQuality,Qua困ntityandMann人erMaximofthe魃CPduetodiffe励rentreasonsl塥ikesubstitut恺ion,disguiseetc.Andbasicallyeuphemis榭msobservetheRelationMaxi箩m.Fromtheana浓lysis,itcanb瘐ealsofoundthatsometimesa锫neuphemismca美nberegardeda磙sviolationof酩twomaximsoft脾heCPatthesam应etime.Partsi嗌xconcludesthewholearticl倘e.KeyWordsCooperative调Principle;Eu轩phemism;Comm丛unicativefun惹ction【摘要】委婉嘻语(euphemism)缥一词起源于希腊语。Eu意蛮思是“好的”，pheme七意思是“话语”，因此字面射上的意思是说好听的话或用礼貌的方式说话。委婉语是敷一个语言学概念，同时也是釜一种文化现象，长久以来一直受到人们的关注。总体上沏讲人们在与异性进行言语交净际时，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉语，女性要比男肟性更多地使用委婉语，年长棕的人要比年青的人更多地使簌用委婉语。人们在“权势关炝系”的语境中往往要比在“亲密关系”的语境中更多地扒使用委婉语。受教育程度越轵高的人，越注意自己的言谈，因而更多地使用委婉语。滚上述因素年龄、性别、社会坨地位、教育等并不孤立存在伞，在交际中，他们交织在一起决定着委婉语的使用。是否使用委婉语还要考虑说话郯者的态度和交谈的目的。文章由六个部分组成。第一部颞分解释了什么是委婉语。第去二部分简单列出合作原则的馗各项原则。它作为语用学的理论基石之一，是指导人们失语言交际的原则之一。它可撵以很好地解释话语的字面意楫义和实际意义的关系，这对办于交际委婉语显得尤为重要忾。第三部分说明委婉语的构蹲成可以有很多种方式：形式变化，语义变化，修辞手段涮和语法手段。第四部分阐述茔了交际委婉语出于替代、掩戗饰、和礼貌等功能。第五部尴分是文章的主体，并说明委乍婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等原因主要违反了合作原悦则中的质、量和方式三个次谧则，基本上是遵循了合作原鲽则中的相关原则。第六部分姚总结全文。【关键字】合忱作原则;委婉语;交际功能1.Introducti跛onIntheOxfordAdvancedL髦earnersEnglishChineseD唰ictionarythe桕explanationo躅fEuphemismis吖"(exampleoft鲶he)useofplea库sant,mildorindirectwords莆orphrasesinp欢laceofmoreac奴curateordire尻ctones"1.A缶ndintheLongm瞳anDictionary物ofContempora歧ryEnglishthe昵explanationo桃fEuphemismis椁"(anexampleo许f)theuseofa颀pleasanter,lessdirectnam荦eforsomethin缫gthoughttobe莆unpleasant"嵯2.Forexampl肽e,themanwhow旋antstoustoca垢llhima“sanit缰ationengineer”insteadofa“garbageman”礴ishopingwewi霈lltreathimwi篇thmorerespec厄tthanweprese梅ntlydo."Th拉ewordeuphemismcomesfro啶mtheGreekeum铈eaninggoodandphememean患ingspeecho跞rsaying,an梅dthusmeansliterallytospeakwithgoodw毁ordsorinapleasantmanner驹"3.Euphemi湓smshavevariousreasonsfor呵existence.Th缰eyconcealthe疒thingspeople椎fearthemost侗death,thedea脚d,thesuperna劓tural.Theyco碡verupthefactsoflifeofse嫫xandreproductionandexcre裥tionwhichin悌evitablyremi奏ndeventhemos宫trefinedpeop嶷lethattheyar陡emadeofclay,馇orworse.They邶arebelovedbyindividualsa赙ndinstitutio付ns(governmen宰ts,especially)thatareanx鼽ioustopresentonlythehand鼓somestpossibleimagesofth僧emselvestoth谛eworld.Andth翎eyareimbedde禅dsodeeplyino栾urlanguageth洱atfewofus,ev谖enthosewhopridethemselve湖sonbEingplai稿nspoken,evergetthroughad淄aywithoutusi忄ngthem.Butso煌mepeoplestil喈lmistakethee谱uphemismsint郢heconversati拼onbytheCoope坼rativeprinci茺ple.Violatin操gtheCP,peopl檎ealsocancontinuetheconve纹rsationwithe塑uphemisms,wh镘ichmaketheauthorinterest格inattitudeso仳fparticipantsandthepurpo飓seofconversa洌tion.Thatiso篝urbodytoday.ofeuphemisms撖FormalinnovationToavo痔idtheemergen垴ceofcertainl虾etterorsoundmayachieveth谀eeffectofeup马hemizing.Theformalinnova埘tioncanhidea痃udio-visuall庑ythosewordsw眉edontwantto暗sayorweshoul纹dntsaysoast镥oachievebett粗eroutcomeinc庠ommunication医.Abbreviat肘ionistheshorteningofawor莓dandmaybesee苞nintheuseoft巨heBritishexp蟋ressionLADIE蓖Sforladiesr挟oom.Thereals溉oisGENTSforg银entlemensro框om.ApocopationApocopationisanotherformofabbre索viationapparentintheuseofvampforvamp夔ireheremeani忪ngaseductive是woman.Andlav岍isforlavator尊y;homoisforhomosexual;co熵caisforcocai闷ne;braisforb峪rassiere.In死itialingInitialingisth受euseofacrony降msinsteadofthEIrcomponen饰tpartsasin"J氵Cfor“JesusCh鳖rist”,BMforb民owelmovement俅"4,"forwat瘐ercloset,forbodyodor,forvenerealdise篥ase,AIDSfora溥cquiredimmun诟edeficiencys境yndrome,SARS苊forsevereacu嘉terespirator桁ysyndrome"5箴.Backformi舁ngBackformingisthesubs声titutionforonepartofspee窭ch(usedinshortenedform)f扭oranother,as崤in"burgle(ro匆b)whichisder必ivedfrombur鞭glar"6.ReduplicationReduplicationistherepet喊itionofasyll掠ableorletter鹨ofaword.Part雾icularlycomm映oninchildren眢sbathroomvocabulary,its汗ubstitutes"p骁ee-peeforpi禧ss,poo-poof惊orbowelmove欲ment"7.B匿lendwordAb瘠lendwordisaf光ormofphoneti既cdistortioni骁nwhichtwoorm铿orewordsares怎queezedtoget宅herbothortho去graphicallyandphonetical腴ly.Anexampleofthisis"gez羡undaforacham哳berpot,aterm锥derivedfromt火hefactthatth誓isobjectgoesunderthebed瞰"8.Dimin枇utiveAdimi蒋nutiveisthef讥ormationofan盆ewtermbynick异ingorshorten弑inganameanda耱ddingasuffix衡indicatingaf胄fectionorsma珂llness."Heinie,forexample,isthedimin殍utiveofhind阈endandrefer嶂stothebuttoc慵ks"9.Semanticinnovati圬onBorrowingMostobviousl媳y,euphemisms代maybeformedbyborrowingwordsfromother楗languageste噗rmsthatarele榷ssfreightedw杵ithnegativeassociations.照Thus,weuseGr耆eekandLatinexpressionsfo考rmanybodilyp潸artsandfunct玎ions.Wehavec入oinedhalitos拿is(badbreath佤)fromtheLati恫n(halitus)fo蚪r“breath”andwehavesubsti田tutedmicturi氡tionforthemorevulgarIndo矿-European“Pi碟ss”.Inaddition,Englisheuphemismsalsoborrowedalotofscientific茯oracademicte坐rms,whichare爸believedtobe够moreeuphemis熵ticandobjectivethantheus缒ualterms,suc滞hasmagneticf啖or“sexy”andperspirefor“s翠weat”andsoon第.WideningE释uphemismsmay窃bemadebyasem柙anticprocess旰calledwideni儒ng.Whenaspec颔ifictermbeco肃mestoopainfulorvivid,wem嵘oveupintheladderofabstra督ction.Inthis壤way,cancerbe溉comesgrowthandagirdlebecomesafoundat蟆ion.Sometime掂s,inaddition轴towideningwe坦dividethenegativeconnota艮tionsofasing莨ledirectterm陬betweentwoor抠morewords.Insteadofsayin扔g“syphilis”o袋penly,wespeakofasocialdi苈sease.Seman据ticshiftAll撑iedtothephen湘omenonofwideningisthatof汆semanticshift.Thisisthesubstitutiono夷fthewhole,or积asimilargene蜈rality,forth窳especificpartwedonotchoo迷setodiscuss.薅Wemaycreates鸸uchmetonymies(substituti营onsofthewhol处eforthepart)涑asrearendfor“buttocks”.S辞ometimes,asi西ntheexpressi篆ons"tosleepw蹙ith/gotobedwithsomeone"散10,weusewordsnamingthel笾argereventinplaceofmorep炷reciserefere谔ncestothesex濉ualrelationsthatareparto恒ftheprocess.狎Rhetoricald鲥evicesMetap桃horEuphemis鹅msmaybemadeb鸸yaprocesscal簖ledmetaphori鳏caltransfer,鼬thecompariso遗nofthingsofo搬nekindtothin睛gsofanother.酡Theeuphemism彡schosenareof狼tenromantici邦zing,poeticizingandsofteningoftheori木ginalwordsli淇ke"gotosleep;gotohislon髯ghome;behome镂andfree;rest喉inpeace;beat樗rest;gotoHea癖ven/Paradise贿;joinonesan骏cestors;bega程theredtoone腓sfathers;jointheimmorals豁fordie"11,鸷shockforrandombombing,co感nstructivede傩structionfor烯severedamage判,havearoadto魍travelforhav棣ealongtimeto吮reachanagreementandetc.棉Aposiopesis茱InEnglish,t怃hereisakindofrhetoriccal迈ledaposiopes儇isthatcanals糍oactastheway獒ofeuphemizing.Whenwethin嗣kweshouldnotsaysomething仿undercertainconditions,w掇esuddenlysto沱paswhenwesay涉someoneisout鸲(ofwork);sheisexpecting(苯ababy);"tota橘keprecautions(againstpre篙gnancy);tode瞰part(fromthi铩sworld)"12Analogycano亦ftenbeseenin砒thevocabulariesofwork.At莛endencytoele惴vatemenialor罢unskilledjob罄ssometimessubstitutingagrandtitlefo疳ralargesalar彝ycanmakeoffalsmelllikea鳏rosebypromotinggarbageme蚶ntosanitatio涔nengineersor闸eventowaste-峨-reductionma鸸nagers.Byimp薏lication,theybecomehighl猸ytrainedtech鲛niciansandex蜡ecutives.Hea鸵lth-clubstaf叩fsbecomefitnesscoordinat霎ors,andsenatorsnowhaveth署eirshoesshin宀edbythefootw枳earmaintenan概ceengineer,f驺ormerlytheSe恶natebootblac桀k.Evenifyoua麾renotagovern艄mentofficial,yourjanitor妯isnowyourbui笏dingmaintena羿nceengineer.UnderstatementUnderstat鲮ementdisplay暝speoplesdesiretomakethe闽irlanguagele组sspainfuland鼎direct.Sothereisneveranuglywomaninth裕isworld,shei祠satleastplai嗤n.Teacherson鸥lytellparent仆sthattheirch咿ildisabitslo逵wforhisage,notretarded.Andcallsenior矍citizenforol魃dperson."Tak芍eothersthingswithoutper戒mission"canb猊einsteadof"s嗍teal".Perip坩hrasisPerip跋hrasisisjustbeatingaroun廾dthebush.Peo怖pleoftensayeuphemismsare慎weaselwords,老becausepeopl窠enevercallas碓padeaspadewhenusingeuphe嗦misms.Fartisnotpleasanttoear,sopeo苷plecallitwindfromthebehind.Someonewa姒ntsyoutogoaway,butheonlysayshewillca勋llyourcarria杲geforyou.Som杆eonelivingat痃thegovernmentexpensemaym饕akeyouenvyhi潆m,butactuall萧yheisinprison."Manysayin犴gsaboutgoing拴toWCmakeagoo晚duseofperiphrasislikewashoneshands,錾powderonesn乔ose,spendapenny.Sodothedropforadj缄ustmentdownw舁ard13"Grammaticalway矛sAccordingtoBolinger,"E钸uphemismisno傲trestrictedt辛othelexicon.Therearegram赓maticalwayso纷ftoningsomet摧hingdown”.Th淄erefore,euph几emizingshoul聪dnotbelimitedtolexicalways;itcanalso逻beachievedby帷grammaticalw莘ays.TenseI硎nEnglish,ten搔secanlendali蜾ttleeuphemis坑ticcolortoth搽eexpressions囱forsomething郾undesired.Es嵴peciallywhen蕲peopleusewan蜣t,hope,think馊andwonderorw镫ordslikethattheymayalsom囱akeuseofthet蹇ensetosoundmoreeuphemist呒ically.Forex阅ample,Iwonde籁redifyouwoul鼎dmindhelping鲲me?or"Iwonde陉redifyoucoul眨dhelpme?"14.Askinghelp崽thisway,peop彩lewontfeels客oembarrassed甜iftheywerere拊fused.Synta鹱cticalnegati撞onThismetho扣dcanlessonth阚epainfulimpactofthelanguagethatisnotwelcomed.Wes忏aysheisnotpr景etty(Actuall芰ysheisveryug氪ly),butthati珀sacceptable,弥becausenotpr澎ettydoesnotequalto“ugly”潋,itcouldbe“p欲lain”too.Not扌prettyhasawiderrangeofme恰aningthanugl唱y.Similarusagesareasthefollowing:Idontthink,Iam只afraid,Iamno牡tsure,Idont荮like,etc.Fi逅rstpersonalp识ronounsTheu怂seoffirstper灸sonalpronoun】slikewe,ours岐,us,etc,canalsomakeourspeechessoundm偻oreeuphemist唱ic.Youwouldf荑eelmorewelco讥medifyouused曷weorourquite谓often.Ifadoc捎torsaidtoyou喘howdowefeelt腴oday,youwoul哦dfeelverywar诠mandcomforta笫ble,becausei峙tmakesyouthinkthatthiski匦nddoctortake暮syourillness油asmutualconcern.3Communicativefunct灶ionsofeuphem惊ismsLanguag李eisforcommun稿ication,whereaseuphemismsmayleadtobe哦ttercommunication.Usinge咻uphemismscan桉avoidbeingpresumptuousin掣languagecomm柑unication.Whenwehavetoto萋uchsometopic阻sthatareunpl娼easant,weten兄dtochoosemor壹eeuphemisticexpressionst侑orefertothos淆epainfultopi煜cssoasnottoh洱urtthehearersfeeling.We谱canfindtheth闳eoreticalfou铧ndationforth餐ismotivation锣inLeechsPol蝽itenessPrinc弃iple.Euphemismsjustminimizetheimpoli只tenessandmaximizethepoli荭tenessincomm迨unication.Th懑efunctionsof胥euphemismsar滠einagreement暄withthoseofPolitenessPri傣ncipletoo,as耨theybothoffermorebenefittothehearera蕤ndleavemorecosttothespea嗝ker,withthep猢urposethatbo佟thofthetwosi轶deswillfeelrespectedandh伴avefavorableimpressionofeachother.As举politenessis雄usuallyregar窗dedasthemani损festationofh帆umancivilization,euphemi抚smisoneofthe诞mosteffectivestrategiest魔odisplaypoli烤tenesswhilem耗odulatingint耳erpersonalrelationshipin欢humancommuni铗cation.Subs翳titutionAcc违ordingtothed迩efinitionsofeuphemismand又weknowthatag骧reatnumberofEnglisheuphe悝mismsserveas酿thesubstitut汗ionsforverbaltaboos.Thet鸹ermtaboo(tam惮eaning“mark”绸,boomeaning“exceedingly”褒)ofPolynesia锣norigindenotesanythingli完nguisticandn貔onlinguistic颓,whichisproh嚅ibitedorforb减idden.Taboor蓥eferstothesi踞tuationinwhi弱chawordornamecanbeusedin剡acommunityon笮lyunderspeci奈alconditions配,whetheronlybycertainper豕sonsoronlyin性certaincircu邵mstances.Justasviolatingaculturaltab圳oocanbequite蕖offensive,soisitwithaver塔baltabooinpr疬essconferenc同es.The“word”魇hasbeenandco捂ntinuestobeinmostsocieti频esperceiveda特sapowerfulin缁strumentthatmayevokeevil蚰spirits,make艉badthingshap布penandinstig篚atetoviolenc校eandrevolutionandnumerou铼sotheractivi埽ties.Whileta塌booofwordsoc沆curswhenapar析ticulartopicisconsidered像validfordisc辜ussion,euphe萏misticexpres疯sionortermsa柚rerequired.S佝odiplomaticeuphemismshav椹eaveryseriou拼sreasonforbe娴ing.Theycanc鲧oncealthethi角ngspeoplefea圬rmostdeath,捅thedeadorthe哉supernatural.Euphemismsc蠼analsoelimin麽ateunhappiness,embarrass昨mentandfearetc.soastorel概ievepeoplepsychologicall俐y.PolitenessPolitenessisanotherver篦yimportantfu破nctionthateu窘phemismsserv羰einsociallif富e."Someofthe窿euphemismsar艏eusedtoavoidcrudenessand项indecencyfor磉thesakeofapoliteconversa臌tion."15Gr熙iceformulatedCooperativePrincipleofu细tteranceinwh滦ichtheMaximo啼fMannerwasde偃finedas“Bepe罢rspicuousandspecific;Toa赁voidobscurit楫y;Toavoidamb幼iguity;Tobebriefandtobeo鹘rderly.”Theroundaboutnat坡ureofeuphem照ismsgoesagai聃nsttheMaximo匙fManner,whic幼hcanonlybefa黯irlyexplaine咀dwellbyLeech茜sPoliteness脎Principle“Ap璨probationMax蠖im:minimized糯ispraiseofother,maximize狄praiseofothe幽r”.Inotherwo搠rds,euphemis郫msaretominimizeimpolitee染xpressionsan鄂dmaximizepol脬iteexpressio菠ns.Disguise哦Besidesthet生wofunctionso獭feuphemismsm爆entionedabov及e,thereisstillanotherone敖moreimportan她tfunctionatw栾orkineuphemi狯sticcommunic蕻ation,namely,theDisguiseFunction.Her厢ewemeanthatb苑ecauseofthevaguenessofeu婪phemisms,ith蟠asbecomeaver疒yimportanttoolforpolitic沸alleadersort稿hediplomatso痒rstatesmento嘴distortthefa文ctsorandpres礓entafalsepic驳tureofpeacea值ndprosperity孬andtobeautif禳ywhateverthe瞄authorityhavedone.Forexa婪mple,intheIr甓aqWar,theyus罨e“OperationI肀raqiFreedom”戚forbeautifyingtheirmilit步aryinvasion,掐“possiblemov祛ement”refers钅tomilitaryat简tack,“airope帅ration”or“ai蚨rstrikes”for紧airattack,“e婺nterthewar”t夺oshowtheirre绨luctancetofi趄ghtthewaretc鼬.andwemayfin戎dmanysuchkin屑doftheseeuph乏emismsinpressconferences洼.Themostimpo胂rtantandultimatefunction恕orpurposeoft铩heuseofdiplo赴maticeuphemi蹋smsinpressco壅nferencesist氽odisguiseorb旦eautifytheir鹪invasiveesse鼬nceorotherev讠ilactionsort忤heseparation乏ofwordsfromt俣ruth.InAmeri倪canandBritis肘hsocietiesno訾wadays,diplo河maticeuphemi抻smsarealwayspurposelydev孝isedtodisguisescandalsin铷warsandpolit耥ics,delibera雇telyinvented礼tobeautifylo汜wlyoccupatio集nsandexcessi楞velyinflated通topromotesal她esinadvertis骇ement.4.The炮CooperativeP绗rincipleBef骺oregoingon,welookattwoex岳amples,asfol袅lows:(1)"A笄:Canyoutellm骇ethetime?B恁:Well,themai娆lhasalreadycome.(2)A:A铄reyougoingto琰Johnsbirthd稼ayparty?B:IveheardMar嗔yisgoing."1曲6